<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.3 20210610//EN" "JATS-journalpublishing1-3.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="ru"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">mes</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="ru">Экстремальная биомедицина</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Extreme Medicine</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">3033-8964</issn><issn pub-type="epub">3033-8972</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Centre for Strategic Planning of the Federal Medical and Biological Agency</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.47183/mes.2026-438</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">mes-438</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>НЕЙРОТЕХНОЛОГИИ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>NEUROTECHNOLOGY</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Модели машинного обучения для стратификации тяжести черепно-мозговой травмы на основе временной динамики интерлейкина-6</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Machine learning models for stratifying traumatic brain injury severity based on interleukin-6 temporal dynamics</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5545-135X</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Балакин</surname><given-names>Е. И.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Balakin</surname><given-names>E. I.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Балакин Евгений Игоревич, канд. мед. наук</p><p>Москва</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Evgenii I. Balakin, Cand. Sci. (Med.)</p><p>Moscow</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">evgbalakin@yandex.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1973-1693</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Юрку</surname><given-names>К. А.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Yurku</surname><given-names>K. A.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Юрку Ксения Алексеевна, канд. мед. наук</p><p>Москва</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Kseniya A. Yurku, Cand. Sci. (Med.)</p><p>Moscow</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">ks_yurku@mail.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9404-1660</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Мальсагова</surname><given-names>К. А.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Malsagova</surname><given-names>K. A.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Мальсагова Кристина Ахмедовна, канд. биол. наук</p><p>Москва</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Kristina. A. Malsagova, Cand. Sci. (Biol.)</p><p>Moscow</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">kristina.malsagova86@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5111-3863</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Буткова</surname><given-names>Т. В.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Butkova</surname><given-names>T. V.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Буткова Татьяна Владимировна, канд. мед. наук</p><p>Москва</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Tatiana V. Butkova, Cand. Sci. (Med.)</p><p>Moscow</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">t.butkova@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4472-2016</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Кайшева</surname><given-names>А. Л.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Kaysheva</surname><given-names>A. L.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Кайшева Анна Леонидовна, д-р биол. наук</p><p>Москва</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Anna L. Kaysheva, Dr. Sci. (Biol.)</p><p>Moscow</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">kaysheva3@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3396-5813</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Пустовойт</surname><given-names>В. И.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Pustovoit</surname><given-names>V. I.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Пустовойт Василий Игоревич, д-р мед. наук</p><p>Москва</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Vasiliy I. Pustovoit, Dr. Sci. (Med.)</p><p>Moscow</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">vipust@yandex.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff-1"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>Государственный научный центр Российской Федерации — Федеральный медицинский биофизический центр им. А.И. Бурназяна</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>State Research Center — Burnasyan Federal Medical Biophysical Center of Federal Medical and Biological Agency</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff-2"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>Научно-исследовательский институт биомедицинской химии им. В.Н. Ореховича</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>Institute of Biomedical Chemistry</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2026</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>10</day><month>06</month><year>2026</year></pub-date><volume>28</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>267</fpage><lpage>276</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Балакин Е.И., Юрку К.А., Мальсагова К.А., Буткова Т.В., Кайшева А.Л., Пустовойт В.И., 2026</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2026</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Балакин Е.И., Юрку К.А., Мальсагова К.А., Буткова Т.В., Кайшева А.Л., Пустовойт В.И.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Balakin E.I., Yurku K.A., Malsagova K.A., Butkova T.V., Kaysheva A.L., Pustovoit V.I.</copyright-holder><license xml:lang="ru" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.</license-p></license><license xml:lang="en" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://www.extrememedicine.ru/jour/article/view/438">https://www.extrememedicine.ru/jour/article/view/438</self-uri><abstract><sec><title>Введение</title><p>Введение. Черепно-мозговая травма (ЧМТ) остается серьезной проблемой в области здравоохранения в связи с ее гетерогенностью и непредсказуемостью исходов. Среди молекулярных маркеров интерлейкин-6 (ИЛ-6) часто ассоциируется с каскадами вторичных воспалительных реакций. Однако его диагностическая и прогностическая ценность в различные временные точки после травмы остается недостаточно изученной у спортсменов.</p></sec><sec><title>Цель</title><p>Цель. Оценка диагностической точности и прогностической значимости ИЛ-6 при стратификации тяжести ЧМТ в различные временные точки после травмы с использованием моделей машинного обучения.</p></sec><sec><title>Материалы и методы</title><p>Материалы и методы. Проведено проспективное когортное наблюдение 89 мужчин-спортсменов, активно занимающихся контактными видами спорта (смешанные единоборства и кудо), средний возраст 28,7 ± 5,3 года, с документированным подтверждением сотрясения мозга, ушибом мозга легкой и средней степени тяжести. Осуществляли последовательный забор плазмы крови через 3, 6, 12 и 24 ч после травмы. Концентрация ИЛ-6 определена с помощью валидированных протоколов для иммуноферментного анализа. Для решения задач классификации тяжести травмы были обучены модели на основе алгоритмов градиентного бустинга (XGBoost), логистической регрессии и случайного леса. Точность ответа моделей оценивалась с помощью ROC-анализа. Для определения наиболее значимых временных точек применялся метод оценки важности признаков SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations). Для прогнозирования и стратификации пациентов была реализована модель на основе рекуррентной нейронной сети с долгой краткосрочной памятью (LSTM). Статистическая валидация включала H-критерий Краскела – Уоллиса (H = 31,77; p &lt; 0,001) и корреляционный анализ Спирмена (rs  = 0,81; p &lt; 0,001).</p></sec><sec><title>Результаты</title><p>Результаты. Концентрации ИЛ-6 через 6 и 12 ч продемонстрировали наибольшую дискриминационную способность при ушибе мозга средней степени тяжести. Модель XGBoost достигла AUC 0,92 [95% ДИ: 0,88; 0,96], чувствительности 87% и специфичности 84%. Анализ SHAP показал, что значения ИЛ-6 через 6 и 12 ч оказали наибольшее влияние на прогнозы модели. Логистическая регрессия и случайный лес дали AUC 0,84 и 0,88 соответственно. Выявленное диагностическое окно между 6 и 12 ч после травмы совпадает с пиком нейровоспалительной активности.</p></sec><sec><title>Выводы</title><p>Выводы. Уровень ИЛ-6, измеренный в течение 6–12 ч после ЧМТ, представляет собой специфический биомаркер для ранней стратификации тяжести травмы. Интеграция объяснимых подходов машинного обучения обеспечивает надежную и клинически значимую поддержку принятия решений в нейротравматологии.</p></sec></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="en"><sec><title>Introduction</title><p>Introduction. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains a serious healthcare problem due to its heterogeneity and unpredictable outcomes. In TBI, secondary inflammatory cascades are frequently associated with the level of interleukin-6 (IL-6). However, its diagnostic and prognostic value at various time points after injury requires further investigation in athletes.</p></sec><sec><title>Objective</title><p>Objective. To evaluate the diagnostic accuracy and prognostic significance of IL-6 in stratifying TBI severity at various time points after injury with the use of machine learning models.</p></sec><sec><title>Materials and methods</title><p>Materials and methods. A prospective cohort study was conducted among 89 male athletes, with a mean age of 28.7 ± 5.3 years. These athletes were actively engaged in contact sports (mixed martial arts and kudo) and had documented evidence of concussion or mild to moderate brain contusion. Sequential blood plasma collection was performed at 3, 6, 12, and 24 h post-injury. IL-6 concentration was determined using validated enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) protocols. In order to classify injury severity, models were trained using gradient boosting (XGBoost), logistic regression, and random forest algorithms. The accuracy of model responses was evaluated using ROC analysis. To identify the most significant time points, the SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) feature importance method was applied. For patient prediction and stratification, a model based on a long short-term memory (LSTM) recurrent neural network was implemented. Statistical validation used the Kruskal–Wallis H-test (H = 31.77; p &lt; 0.001) and Spearman’s correlation analysis (rs  = 0.81; p &lt; 0.001).</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>Results. The greatest discriminatory ability of IL-6 concentrations for moderate brain contusion was noted at 6 and 12 h. The XGBoost model achieved an area under the curve of 0.92 [95% CI: 0.88; 0.96], with a sensitivity of 87% and a specificity of 84%. The SHAP analysis revealed that IL-6 values at 6 and 12 h had the greatest impact on the model’s predictions. Logistic regression and random forest yielded areas under the curve of 0.84 and 0.88, respectively. The identified diagnostic window between 6 and 12 h post-injury coincides with the peak of neuroinflammatory activity.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusions</title><p>Conclusions. The level of IL-6 measured within 6–12 h after TBI represents a specific biomarker for early stratification of injury severity. The integration of explainable machine learning approaches provides robust and clinically relevant decision support in neurotraumatology.</p></sec></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>ИЛ-6</kwd><kwd>черепно-мозговая травма</kwd><kwd>машинное обучение</kwd><kwd>биомаркер</kwd><kwd>рекуррентная нейронная сеть с долгой краткосрочной памятью</kwd><kwd>логистическая регрессия</kwd><kwd>XGBoost</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>IL-6</kwd><kwd>traumatic brain injury</kwd><kwd>machine learning</kwd><kwd>biomarker</kwd><kwd>long short-term memory</kwd><kwd>LSTM recurrent neural network</kwd><kwd>logistic regression</kwd><kwd>XGBoost</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group><funding-statement xml:lang="ru">работа выполнена в рамках Программы фундаментальных научных исследований в Российской Федерации на долгосрочный период (2021–2030 гг.) (№ 125020701771-5).</funding-statement><funding-statement xml:lang="en">the work was performed within the framework of the Program for Basic Research in the Russian Federation for a long-term period (2021–2030) (No. 125020701771-5).</funding-statement></funding-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Butkova TV, Malsagova KA, Nakhod VI, Petrovskiy DV, Izotov AA, Balakin EI, et al. Candidate Molecular Biomarkers of Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review. Biomolecules. 2024;14(10):1283. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom14101283</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Butkova TV, Malsagova KA, Nakhod VI, Petrovskiy DV, Izotov AA, Balakin EI, et al. Candidate Molecular Biomarkers of Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review. Biomolecules. 2024;14(10):1283. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom14101283</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit2"><label>2</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">VanItallie TB. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) in collision sports: Possible mechanisms of transformation into chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). Metabolism. 2019;100S:153943. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2019.07.007</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">VanItallie TB. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) in collision sports: Possible mechanisms of transformation into chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). Metabolism. 2019;100S:153943. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2019.07.007</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit3"><label>3</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Gerber KS, Alvarez G, Alamian A, Behar-Zusman V, Downs CA. Biomarkers of Neuroinflammation in Traumatic Brain Injury. Clinical Nursing Research. 2022;31(7):1203–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/10547738221107081</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Gerber KS, Alvarez G, Alamian A, Behar-Zusman V, Downs CA. Biomarkers of Neuroinflammation in Traumatic Brain Injury. Clinical Nursing Research. 2022;31(7):1203–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/10547738221107081</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit4"><label>4</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ichwan K, Gazali S, Suherman S, Desiana D, Nurjannah N. Plasma interleukin 6 as an outcome predictor of traumatic brain injury patients. Narra J. 2023;3(3):e234. https://doi.org/10.52225/narra.v3i3.234</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ichwan K, Gazali S, Suherman S, Desiana D, Nurjannah N. Plasma interleukin 6 as an outcome predictor of traumatic brain injury patients. Narra J. 2023;3(3):e234. https://doi.org/10.52225/narra.v3i3.234</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit5"><label>5</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Li G, Liu H, He Y, Hu Z, Gu Y, Li Y, et al. Neurological Symptoms and Their Associations With Inflammatory Biomarkers in the Chronic Phase Following Traumatic Brain Injuries. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 2022;13:895852. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.895852</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Li G, Liu H, He Y, Hu Z, Gu Y, Li Y, et al. Neurological Symptoms and Their Associations With Inflammatory Biomarkers in the Chronic Phase Following Traumatic Brain Injuries. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 2022;13:895852. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.895852</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit6"><label>6</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Malik S, Alnaji O, Malik M, Gambale T, Farrokhyar F, Rathbone MP. Inflammatory cytokines associated with mild traumatic brain injury and clinical outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Neurology. 2023;14:1123407. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2023.1123407</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Malik S, Alnaji O, Malik M, Gambale T, Farrokhyar F, Rathbone MP. Inflammatory cytokines associated with mild traumatic brain injury and clinical outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Neurology. 2023;14:1123407. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2023.1123407</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit7"><label>7</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ooi SZY, Spencer RJ, Hodgson M, Mehta S, Phillips NL, Preest G, et al. Interleukin-6 as a prognostic biomarker of clinical outcomes after traumatic brain injury: a systematic review. Neurosurgical Review. 2022;45:3035–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10143-022-01827-y</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ooi SZY, Spencer RJ, Hodgson M, Mehta S, Phillips NL, Preest G, et al. Interleukin-6 as a prognostic biomarker of clinical outcomes after traumatic brain injury: a systematic review. Neurosurgical Review. 2022;45:3035–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10143-022-01827-y</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit8"><label>8</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Yang J, Ran M, Li H, Lin Y, Ma K, Yang Y, et al. New insight into neurological degeneration: Inflammatory cytokines and blood-brain barrier. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience. 2022;15:1013933. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2022.1013933</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Yang J, Ran M, Li H, Lin Y, Ma K, Yang Y, et al. New insight into neurological degeneration: Inflammatory cytokines and blood-brain barrier. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience. 2022;15:1013933. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2022.1013933</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit9"><label>9</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hergenroeder GW, Moore AN, McCoy JP, Samsel L, Ward NH, Clifton GL, et al. Serum IL-6: a candidate biomarker for intracranial pressure elevation following isolated traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neuroinflammation. 2010;7:19. https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-2094-7-19</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hergenroeder GW, Moore AN, McCoy JP, Samsel L, Ward NH, Clifton GL, et al. Serum IL-6: a candidate biomarker for intracranial pressure elevation following isolated traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neuroinflammation. 2010;7:19. https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-2094-7-19</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit10"><label>10</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Helmy A, Carpenter KLH, Menon DK, Pickard JD, Hutchinson PJA. The Cytokine Response to Human Traumatic Brain Injury: Temporal Profiles and Evidence for Cerebral Parenchymal Production. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow &amp; Metabolism. 2010;31(2):658–70. https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.2010.142</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Helmy A, Carpenter KLH, Menon DK, Pickard JD, Hutchinson PJA. The Cytokine Response to Human Traumatic Brain Injury: Temporal Profiles and Evidence for Cerebral Parenchymal Production. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow &amp; Metabolism. 2010;31(2):658–70. https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.2010.142</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit11"><label>11</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Lundberg S, Lee S-I. A Unified Approach to Interpreting Model Predictions. NIPS’17: Proceedings of the 31st International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems. 2017;arXiv:1705.07874v2. https://doi.org/10.48550/ARXIV.1705.07874</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lundberg S, Lee S-I. A Unified Approach to Interpreting Model Predictions. NIPS’17: Proceedings of the 31st International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems. 2017;arXiv:1705.07874v2. https://doi.org/10.48550/ARXIV.1705.07874</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit12"><label>12</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Che Z, Purushotham S, Cho K, Sontag D, Liu Y. Recurrent Neural Networks for Multivariate Time Series with Missing Values. Scientific Reports. 2018;8:6085. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-24271-9</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Che Z, Purushotham S, Cho K, Sontag D, Liu Y. Recurrent Neural Networks for Multivariate Time Series with Missing Values. Scientific Reports. 2018;8:6085. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-24271-9</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit13"><label>13</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Mekkodathil A, El-Menyar A, Naduvilekandy M, Rizoli S, Al-Thani H. Machine Learning Approach for the Prediction of In-Hospital Mortality in Traumatic Brain Injury Using Bio-Clinical Markers at Presentation to the Emergency Department. Diagnostics. 2023;13(15):2605. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13152605</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Mekkodathil A, El-Menyar A, Naduvilekandy M, Rizoli S, Al-Thani H. Machine Learning Approach for the Prediction of In-Hospital Mortality in Traumatic Brain Injury Using Bio-Clinical Markers at Presentation to the Emergency Department. Diagnostics. 2023;13(15):2605. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13152605</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit14"><label>14</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Swets JA. Measuring the Accuracy of Diagnostic Systems. Science. 1988;240:(4857):1285–93. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3287615</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Swets JA. Measuring the Accuracy of Diagnostic Systems. Science. 1988;240:(4857):1285–93. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3287615</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit15"><label>15</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Gardner RC, Puccio AM, Korley FK, Wang KKW, Diaz-Arrastia R, Okonkwo DO, et al. Effects of age and time since injury on traumatic brain injury blood biomarkers: a TRACK-TBI study. Brain Communications. 2023;5(1):fcac316. https://doi.org/10.1093/braincomms/fcac316</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Gardner RC, Puccio AM, Korley FK, Wang KKW, Diaz-Arrastia R, Okonkwo DO, et al. Effects of age and time since injury on traumatic brain injury blood biomarkers: a TRACK-TBI study. Brain Communications. 2023;5(1):fcac316. https://doi.org/10.1093/braincomms/fcac316</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit16"><label>16</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Reyes J, Spitz G, Major BP, O’Brien WT, Giesler LP, Bain JWP, et al. Utility of Acute and Subacute Blood Biomarkers to Assist Diagnosis in CT-Negative Isolated Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Neurology. 2023;101(20):e1992–2004. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000207881</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Reyes J, Spitz G, Major BP, O’Brien WT, Giesler LP, Bain JWP, et al. Utility of Acute and Subacute Blood Biomarkers to Assist Diagnosis in CT-Negative Isolated Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Neurology. 2023;101(20):e1992–2004. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000207881</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit17"><label>17</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Papa L, Brophy GM, Welch RD, Lewis LM, Braga CF, Tan CN, et al. Time Course and Diagnostic Accuracy of Glial and Neuronal Blood Biomarkers GFAP and UCH-L1 in a Large Cohort of Trauma Patients With and Without Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. JAMA Neurology. 2016;73(5):551–60. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2016.0039</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Papa L, Brophy GM, Welch RD, Lewis LM, Braga CF, Tan CN, et al. Time Course and Diagnostic Accuracy of Glial and Neuronal Blood Biomarkers GFAP and UCH-L1 in a Large Cohort of Trauma Patients With and Without Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. JAMA Neurology. 2016;73(5):551–60. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2016.0039</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit18"><label>18</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Papa L, Ladde JG, O’Brien JF, Thundiyil JG, Tesar J, Leech S, et al. Evaluation of Glial and Neuronal Blood Biomarkers Compared With Clinical Decision Rules in Assessing the Need for Computed Tomography in Patients With Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. JAMA Network Open. 2022;5(3):e221302. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.1302</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Papa L, Ladde JG, O’Brien JF, Thundiyil JG, Tesar J, Leech S, et al. Evaluation of Glial and Neuronal Blood Biomarkers Compared With Clinical Decision Rules in Assessing the Need for Computed Tomography in Patients With Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. JAMA Network Open. 2022;5(3):e221302. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.1302</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit19"><label>19</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Papa L, McKinley WI, Valadka AB, Newman ZC, Nordgren RK, Pramuka PE, et al. Diagnostic Performance of GFAP, UCH-L1, and MAP-2 Within 30 and 60 Minutes of Traumatic Brain Injury. JAMA Network Open. 2024;7;(9):e2431115. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.31115</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Papa L, McKinley WI, Valadka AB, Newman ZC, Nordgren RK, Pramuka PE, et al. Diagnostic Performance of GFAP, UCH-L1, and MAP-2 Within 30 and 60 Minutes of Traumatic Brain Injury. JAMA Network Open. 2024;7;(9):e2431115. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.31115</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit20"><label>20</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Yue JK, Kobeissy FH, Jain S, Sun X, Phelps RRL, Korley FK, et al. Neuroinflammatory Biomarkers for Traumatic Brain Injury Diagnosis and Prognosis: A TRACK-TBI Pilot Study. Neurotrauma Reports. 2023;4(1):171–83. https://doi.org/10.1089/neur.2022.0060</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Yue JK, Kobeissy FH, Jain S, Sun X, Phelps RRL, Korley FK, et al. Neuroinflammatory Biomarkers for Traumatic Brain Injury Diagnosis and Prognosis: A TRACK-TBI Pilot Study. Neurotrauma Reports. 2023;4(1):171–83. https://doi.org/10.1089/neur.2022.0060</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit21"><label>21</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Malhotra AK, Shakil H, Smith CW, Huang YQ, Kwong JCC, Thorpe KE, et al. Predicting outcomes after moderate and severe traumatic brain injury using artificial intelligence: a systematic review. NPJ Digital Medicine. 2025;8:373. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-025-01714-y</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Malhotra AK, Shakil H, Smith CW, Huang YQ, Kwong JCC, Thorpe KE, et al. Predicting outcomes after moderate and severe traumatic brain injury using artificial intelligence: a systematic review. NPJ Digital Medicine. 2025;8:373. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-025-01714-y</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit22"><label>22</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Courville E, Kazim SF, Vellek J, Tarawneh O, Stack J, Roster K, et al. Machine learning algorithms for predicting outcomes of traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Surgical Neurology International. 2023;14:262. https://doi.org/10.25259/SNI_312_2023</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Courville E, Kazim SF, Vellek J, Tarawneh O, Stack J, Roster K, et al. Machine learning algorithms for predicting outcomes of traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Surgical Neurology International. 2023;14:262. https://doi.org/10.25259/SNI_312_2023</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit23"><label>23</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Cao Y, Forssten MP, Sarani B, Montgomery S, Mohseni S. Development and Validation of an XGBoost-Algorithm-Powered Survival Model for Predicting In-Hospital Mortality Based on 545,388 Isolated Severe Traumatic Brain Injury Patients from the TQIP Database. Journal of Personalized Medicine. 2023;13(9):1401. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm13091401</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Cao Y, Forssten MP, Sarani B, Montgomery S, Mohseni S. Development and Validation of an XGBoost-Algorithm-Powered Survival Model for Predicting In-Hospital Mortality Based on 545,388 Isolated Severe Traumatic Brain Injury Patients from the TQIP Database. Journal of Personalized Medicine. 2023;13(9):1401. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm13091401</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit24"><label>24</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Nayebi A, Tipirneni S, Foreman B, Ratcliff J, Reddy CK, Subbian V. Recurrent Neural Network based Time-Series Modeling for Long-term Prognosis Following Acute Traumatic Brain Injury. AMIA Annual Symposium Proceedings. 2022;2021:900–9.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Nayebi A, Tipirneni S, Foreman B, Ratcliff J, Reddy CK, Subbian V. Recurrent Neural Network based Time-Series Modeling for Long-term Prognosis Following Acute Traumatic Brain Injury. AMIA Annual Symposium Proceedings. 2022;2021:900–9.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref></ref-list><fn-group><fn fn-type="conflict"><p>The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.</p></fn></fn-group></back></article>
